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New rules governing travel to and from China have come into effect, a move that observers say will further tighten the government's control over its citizens.
Citizens deemed to have "harmed" China's national security or interests while overseas can also be barred from leaving China for up to three years after they return, while those who violate technological import and export regulations may also be banned from leaving.
Chinese authorities say the rules are to "safeguard national sovereignty and security" and deny that they restrict the travel of "ordinary citizens".
But critics say the new rules could further boost Beijing's ability to exert pressure on its nationals' activities abroad.
"This is another tool designed to control what Chinese citizens do and say overseas," Professor Tom Kellogg, Executive Director of the Center for Asian Law at Georgetown University, told BBC Chinese.
"In some cases, in order to prevent individuals from criticising the Chinese government overseas or to punish their rights advocacy activities, state security authorities directly refuse to issue passports," Kellogg adds.
According to the rules taking effect on Tuesday, Chinese citizens may be prohibited from leaving the country if they violate technology import and export regulations that "may endanger national industrial or technological security".
Piyao, a Chinese government "rumour-refuting" platform, posted a statement last week saying the new rules "do not restrict the travel of ordinary citizens, but rather serve as a preventative measure against high-risk destinations and individuals with unusual travel patterns".
The regulations were issued to address "problems" such as people being deceived into leaving the country or engaging in illegal gambling and scam activities abroad, the statement said.
But some Chinese nationals have reported facing murky travel restrictions for years.
One 26-year-old Chinese citizen, who wished to be identified only as Pipi, told BBC Chinese that his passport application in 2023 was rejected and he believes it was because he attended the massive pro-democracy protests in Hong Kong in 2019.
According to Pipi, he was interviewed by Hong Kong media outlets during the protests. When he returned to mainland China, he was questioned by state security police.
He said one immigration official told him that he could not get a passport "because of the Hong Kong issue" – but this was not confirmed in writing to him.
"If they have given me an official document, I could apply for administrative reconsideration. But all they said was one sentence: 'You can't go,'" Pipi said.
Pipi said he did not dare to escalate the matter, fearing he would "end up in prison".
"I'm just an ordinary person, right? I'm a young man, and I haven't done anything bad," he said.
"I don't know whether I'll ever be able to leave [China]."
